Energy poverty is a multidimensional issue, as demonstrated by a comparison between two low-income countries, Bolivia (BOL) and Côte d’Ivoire (CIV), and a high-income European country, France (FRA). These three countries represent different stages of access and energy poverty. BOL and CIV have very low access to clean cooking, while BOL has achieved universal access to electricity, like FRA. However, both BOL and CIV face significant energy affordability issues, leading to widespread energy poverty. CIV lags behind BOL and FRA in electricity access but still contends with energy poverty. This study examines the socio-economic determinants of access to energy infrastructure, energy services, and energy poverty. It finds that as the share of households with energy access and services increases the likelihood of an energy poverty trap also rises. The energy-poverty gap, which is the total cash transfer needed to address energy poverty, is higher in BOL and FRA compared to CIV due to higher average energy expenditures and a larger number of energy-poor households. Using clustering techniques, the study identifies the socio-demographic profiles of the most vulnerable households. Targeting these groups is shown to be more effective in bridging the energy poverty gap. The findings highlight the importance of considering affordability in efforts to ensure universal energy access, to prevent further exclusion and promote energy justice.
