The purpose of this study is to reveal how the urban market for off-grid energy production in the hybrid domain developed in the Indian context and to critically reflect on this phenomenon.

The authors explore hybrid infrastructure for electricity supply in the Global South, with a focus on Bangalore, India. The authors conduct a case study to reveal how diffusion of off-grid solutions offered by a social enterprise – which was originally set up to provide off-grid solutions to poor rural communities – went from rural into more affluent urban users.

The hybrid domain develops through the engagement of proactive and savvy urban users interacting with socially minded corporate entrepreneurs to deliver customised off-grid technological solutions. Unlike rural users, urban users have broader societal interests and missions. These interactions allow the social enterprise to develop new capabilities and design off-grid solutions that meet technical, ethical, pedagogical and financial requirements in urban niches that may eventually spill-over back into rural areas.

The work is based on one case, which limits the generalisability of findings. It provides off-grid energy and infrastructure researchers with new themes and directions for research on the hybrid domain for energy provision where both the modern infrastructure ideal and the making-do improvisation model no longer fit.

The study provides insights into how social enterprises offering off-grid solutions can expand into new market niches, the factors that encourage this and the capabilities required. It also highlights potential downsides to the non-state model that should be addressed in policy.

Urban users struggling with unreliable centralised energy provision can draw help from social enterprises by communicating mission-oriented motivations for adopting off-grid technology on top of the core need. This may translate into improved capabilities in social enterprises that are also offering services to poor rural communities.

Uncovers overlooked mechanisms by which off-grid technology originally intended for poorer rural areas can be diffused into richer urban areas.